Technology+in+Education+(Special+Teaching+and+Learning)

Modern Learning Technologies for Students with Disabilities
The rapid development of computer technologies in the recent decade has brought to life numerous computer-involved applications which dramatically enhance teaching and learning opportunities for handicapped people. As advances in technology have grown, the distinction between assistive and instructional technology has blurred. Assistive technology was usually considered to be devices that help students with physical or sensory impairments compensate for their disability, however, today it is viewed upon as any tool or item, piece of equipment, or product that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities (Tech Act, 1998), and instructional technology is regarded as any software or hardware designed to teach the general population ideas and concepts. Assistive instructional technologies advanced into “accessible information” technologies which are bursting into the classroom at all levels, as a tool for teachers to develop, monitor, and provide instructions, and for students to access and engage in learning.

More than fifteen years ago Lahm and Morrissette outlined seven areas of instruction where assistive technologies could assist students with disabilities. These areas include organization, note taking, writing assistance, and productivity, access to reference materials, cognitive assistance, and materials modification (Lahm, Morrissette, 1994). A number of approaches are available to assist students with disabilities in these areas of instruction. Since that time every year new technologies that can enhance the learning of students with exceptionalities come on the market. The right technology can provide a student with a disability access to learning opportunities few dared to dream of just a decade ago and provide the means for academic success. New software can help educators with a range of responsibilities, from writing individual education projects` to maintaining electronic grade books. Disabled students either with cognitive, or physical disabilities use a variety of technology tools for their success in academic and organizational skills, but there is a number of barriers that impede students with disabilities when they use technology.

Even when they use assistive technology, students with vision, hearing and mobility impairments often have difficulty accessing instructional materials used in online courses, Web resources, simulations and online interactions with instructors. For students with impaired vision, screen readers may not be able to read the images or table data on a Web page. Students with impaired hearing cannot learn from uncaptioned audio or multimedia presentations. Colorblind students cannot distinguish between some text colors used for correct answers or for emphasis. Reply boxes (because of size, shape and location) and timed responses are difficult for students with mobility disabilities to use successfully. These barriers limit the educational opportunities for students with disabilities, interfere with their overall learning and prevent them from meeting academic standards (Griffin, 2004).

Technology for students with mild disabilities has moved far beyond graphic organizers and standard word processors. Handheld computers and talking PDAs (personal data assistants or PalmPilots™) benefit students with disabilities in a multitude of ways. Organizational skills are improved: Students can keep track of assignments as well as organize their personal lives. The systems can also provide alarms to remind students when to go to lunch, take a break, etc. For students working on job skills, software breaks a job down into all its subtasks and provides reinforcement. Text to speech software shows students text as they hear it read aloud. Some examples are ReadPlease (a free online program), MyComputerSpeaks™, and TextHELP's ScreenReader software. The handheld Reading Pen pronounces and defines unknown words when scanned over them.

New technology can also guide students through the writing process. Inspiration's® mapping software helps students develop their ideas visually (Kidspiration® helps younger students), while Report Writer Interactive from FTC Publishing uses prompts to guide students through each writing step. Talking word processing programs such as prTalking help students with fine motor deficits that impede handwriting. AbleNet's™ BookWorm, which is switch accessible and has a headphone jack, lets you preprogram books or worksheets for students to "read" silently individually or while taking part in group reading. The company's Star Reporter program involves every student - including those with severe disabilities - in creating a school newspaper. Technology can also help a child who has difficulty writing. With an IntelliTools® IntelliKeys® keyboard, instead of typing individual letters, the student chooses whole words to put key parts of a story in order. Ready-made or teacher-designed overlay membranes act as simplified keyboards.

Visual impairment and blindness are regarded low-incidence disabilities, so the number of students with vision loss may be few in his or her school or community. Nevertheless in order to participate fully within the educational environment, these students require instruction from a trained professional in such disability-specific skills as Braille literacy and numeracy, assistive technology skills, use of low-vision devices, career and life management skills, social interaction skills, independent living and personal management skills, and orientation and mobility skills (Standards for Special Education,2006). On this way two learning impedance factors may impact the outcome success. The first learning obstacle is the concentration of visual presentation of core learning content. Recent progress in technology has enabled teaching methods to move from predominantly textual forms to visual content and web-based modes of delivery. The second learning obstacle for blind and low vision students is that the majority of web-based content is not designed for assistive technologies, and as a result assistive technologies can be frustrating to use (Armstrong, 2009). The assistive technologies readily available to students with severe vision impairments are Braille display devices, screen enlargement software (such as Magic and Zoomtext), and screen reading software that converts text into audio (such as Jaws). These commonly used assistive technologies have limited or no ability to translate graphical images. Computer based visualization techniques depend almost entirely on high-resolution graphics, and for vision impaired users the problems of using complex visual displays are great.

Students who are blind or have visual impairments such as low vision or partial vision can benefit from assistive technology devices such as audio books, magnifiers, tape recorders, digital recorders, special lighting, pen lights, large display and talking calculators, laptop computers, Braille writers, Braille translation software for computers, Braille printers, closed-circuit televisions with magnifiers, computers with speech output or feedback, enlarged computer monitors, computer keyboards with large keys, talking dictionaries and spell checkers, video magnifiers, voice output software, and screen readers. It goes without saying that students without vision cannot access information beyond those things that they can touch or hear. Without this information, students are unable to organize their environment or develop concepts that are important in understanding connections in their world. Students who are blind or visually impaired need to access information through direct experiences and hands-on, tactile exploration facilitated by qualified professionals who can address these unique needs. There are currently only limited methods for presenting information non-visually, and these do not provide an equivalent speed and ease of use to their graphical counterparts. The assistive technologies used by vision impaired and blind students may translate this information incorrectly, or not at all, leading to incomplete, erroneous, or different interpretations of concepts presented (Bourquin, 2005). Although research projects in the development of assistive technologies are frequently presented in the literature, the development of haptic, force-feedback, and other sophisticated technologies are still in their infancy, being environment dependent and requiring large amounts of code development and testing. Though computer-based learning has opened opportunities for many students with disabilities, and some computer-based training software ( as pronunciation drilling, for example) can be more efficient for its one-to-one individualized attention, opportunities to offer native-speaker voices as models and to adapt to individual learner’s progress by customizing practice to students’ needs, testing for transference of skills to other contexts or speakers (Godwin-Jones, 2009), it remains primarily vision dependent (Armstrong, 2009).

The classroom performance of students who are deaf or have hearing impairments can be improved with hearing aids, signaling devices, communication boards, amplifiers, headphones, FM systems, TTD/TTY Phone Service Keyboards, closed-captioned televisions, laptop computers, telecaption decoders and speaker amplifiers. Lectures for deaf students present one of the biggest hardships in education. However, speech-to-text converting technologies will allow such students take their own notes via a microphone with a Bluetooth connection with the personal computer and a software transcribing the lecture onto a word document. This tool is a marvelous invention and might be used a whole lot more in classrooms, not just for the hearing impaired, but also for a various array of disabilities. There are three types of Speech-to-Text software that are used in the education setting. Older models are those that use Communication Access Realtime Translation (CART). This uses stenographic machines and computer software to translate what is said into a word document. This software is verbatim. Since it is an older software, another person types what is said on the stenographic machines and it is immediately transcribed onto a screen for the person who is hard of hearing to see. This software can send the information globally over the internet in real time as well. Furthermore, the text displayed differentiates between speakers and describes sounds. Another model, which is almost exactly like this one, is Computer-Assisted Note taking (CAN). It uses the same steps, but is not word for word like CART. The third software used, which is used a lot more now than CART, is Typewell. It uses the same basic idea and steps, but is a more updated software program (Megaboo, 2010).

Potentially valuable devices for students with language processing disabilities are electronic spellers, dictionaries, word scanners, voice-recognition software for computers, electronic organizers, word-prediction software for computers, talking devices for pronunciation, audio books and players, portable word processors or laptops, and text readers. Although the degree to which the student suffers from the disability determines the device chosen, many of these items are used widely in a variety of settings (Penrod, Haley, Matheson, 2005). Students with speech or communication disabilities can utilize communication boards, voice-output devices, communication software for computers, augmentative communication devices with visual, speech, or printed output, text-to-voice and voice-to-text software for computers, talking word processing with writing support, touch screens, head pointing devices, translating devices and electronic dictionaries. Students with mild learning disabilities can benefit from audio books, electronic spelling checkers, electronic dictionaries, laptop computers, electronic organizers, word processors, and graphic organizer software for computers. Physical impairments may affect one small part or a large part of a student's body. Therefore, assistive technology for physical impairments varies widely in scope and implementation. Some examples include tilt boards, onscreen keyboards, touch lights, voice input and output devices, voice-recognition software for computers, laptop computers, eye-controlled computer-input devices, portable word processors, adaptive switches and alternative keyboards. Additionally, computer mouth sticks or foot pedals can allow students to successfully input information, as can tracker-ball pointers, head pointers, switches and adapted mice (Olsen, 2009). New technology makes it possible for students who do not read or speak to access the Web. Talking browsers and screen readers read Web content aloud or send it to a Braille display or printer. Other programs help students use e-mail. RJ Cooper's IcanEmail, a talking e-mail program that works with augmentative communication devices, uses "spoken" prompts like, "If you'd like to speak your message, you can do that here." Mayer-Johnson's Inter_Comm program lets students send e-mail using picture symbols.

Technology is revolutionizing the way students with physical disabilities use computers. The orbiTouch keyless keyboard from Keybowl opens new worlds for students who have trouble using a standard keyboard. Instead of using their fingers to type small keys, students use their whole hands to maneuver two globes into various positions to type letters. With another product, Cyberlink, a headband picks up electric signals produced by facial muscles, eye movement, or brain waves, which control the cursor-mouse. Students can then use an onscreen keyboard, Web browsers, and peripheral devices controlled by the mouse. Many web 2.0 sites have great potential for students with disabilities. Many of these sites help meet the concepts of Universal Design for Learning (UDL). UDL is a framework curriculum that enables all individuals to gain knowledge, skills, and enthusiasm for learning. Using multiple means of representation, multiple means of action, expression, and engagement, you can create lessons and curriculum that all learners can participate in. Virtual reality also brings new learning experiences to students with disabilities. One program teaches students who are blind orientation and mobility skills to safely cross the street. Another shows students how the phases of the moon change by letting them "fly" around in space. Many web2.0 sites are great ways to meet the UDL goals and many of these sites are easily adapted for use by students with disabilities. For example, the Tar Heel Reader is a free, online book creator. The site has over 8,000 books on many topics. Many of these books have been written by students. Some features of Tar Heel Reader are integration with Flickr for photos and Text-to-Speech capabilities for completed books. Voicethread, a site mentioned on this blog numerous times, is a great way for students to express themselves. Using the record feature students with disabilities can pre-record comments, and then play them back to present their information. Since other can leave comments too, it becomes an interactive tool, and what student doesn't love to have their parents, grandparents or friends comment on their work. The successful e-learning environment developed comprised a virtual classroom enabling remote and local delivery of lectures and tutorial exercises, recorded audio lectures, converted learning materials including image descriptions for the graphical components, delivery by vision impaired instructors, manual and computerized teaching aids (the most significant being the pegboard, the network simulation tool and the Linux speech synthesizer), and the remote network laboratory for the configuration and testing of network architectures (Armstrong, 2009). Common minimum requirements to Web based resource are listed on the DO-IT website, a disability organization from the University of Washington, lists the standards that Webbased resources should meet. They are to maintain a simple, consistent page layout throughout the Web site, to keep page backgrounds simple, to make sure there is enough contrast between the text color and background color, to include captions for video and transcribe other audio resources, to make links to other resources descriptive use tables sparingly and consider alternatives, and to provide alternatives for forms and databases. When applets and plug-in programs are used, these website should provide alternatives that a screen reader can read and include a note about accessibility and ask visitors for their input about accessibility (A complete listing of the DO-IT suggestions is available at www.washington. edu/doit/Brochures/ Technology/universal.design.html).

References Armstrong, H. (2009). Advanced IT Education for the Vision Impaired via e-Learning. Journal of Information Technology Education, v. 8, p. 243-256. Assistive Technology Act. (1998). Retrieved November 2010 from http://www.ataporg.org/atap/legislative.php Bourquin, E. (2005). Teaching Deaf-Blind People to Communicate and Interact with the Public: Critical Issues for Travelers Who Are Deaf-Blind. RE:view, v. 37, issue 3, pp. 109-116. Briggle, S., J. (2005). Language and Literacy Development in Children Who Are Deaf or Hearing Impaired. Kappa Delta Pi Record, v. 41, no. 2, pp. 68-71. Griffin, D. (2004). Why is Technology Access for Students With Disabilities Important? Southern Regional Education Board. Retrieved November 2010 from http://publications.sreb.org/2004/04T01-Why_Tech_Access.pdf Godwin-Jones, R. (2009). Emerging Technologies Speech Tools and Technologies. Language Learning and Technology, v. 13, no. 3, pp. 4-11. Lahm, E., Morrissette, S. (1994). Zap 'Em with Assistive Technology: Notetaking, Modified Materials, Assistive Writing Tools, References, Organizational Tools, Cognitive Assistance, Adapted Access. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Council for Exceptional Children, Denver, CO, 26 p. Retrieved November 2010 from http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-1/assistive.htm Megaboo. (2010). Speech to text assistive software. November 12, 2010. Retrieved November 2010 from http://medt3401.blogspot.com/2010/11/speech-to-text-assistive-software.html Olsen, K. (2009). Assistive Technology Devices for Students with Disabilities. Retrieved November 2010 from http://www.ehow.com/about_5445583_assistive-technology- devices-students-disabilities.html Penrod, W. M., Haley, C.D., Matheson, L., P. (2005). Rehabilitation Education for Blindness and Visual Impairment; RE:view, v. 37, no. 2, p. 53-58. Standards for Special Education. (2006). Essential Components of Educational Programming for Students who are Blind and Visually Impaired. Online Submission, 18 pp. Retrieved November 2010 from http://education.alberta.ca/media/511690/ ecep_blind_or_visually_impaired.pdf

Appendix A.Technologies for blind, visual and hearing impairments (screen readers, scanning and reading, browser readers): 1.JAWS 2.Zoomtext 3.Kurzweil 1000 4.OpenBook 5.IBM Home Page Reader 6.Microsoft Windows Options for Blind/Vision Impairments 7.Mac OS X Vision Accessibility 8.GNOME Vision Accessibility 9.VoiceBase 10.CART/CAN

a.Technologies for Movement Impairments (miscellaneous applications): 1.Dragon Naturally Speaking 2.IBM ViaVoice 3.TextHelp Read&Write 4.WordQ 5.Microsoft Windows Options for People Who Have Movement Impairments 6.Mac OS X Physical/Motor Accessibility 7.X-Windows/GNOME 8.Alternative Keyboards and Mice 9.TypeWell b.Technologies for Learning Disabilities: 1.Kurzweil 3000 2.TextHelp Read&Write 3.WordQ 4.Microsoft Windows Options for People Who Have Learning/Cognitive Disabilities 5.Mac OS X Language and Communication Accessibility